The Psychology of Social Dilemmas

2 The Psychology of Social Dilemmas "I wonder men dare trust themselves with men"-William Shakespeare Every citizen enjoys the benefits of public services, such as hospitals, libraries and the police, but most will be reluctant to pay extra taxes to maintain them. Car drivers generally support the government's plans to promote public transportation. Yet, how many drivers are prepared to voluntarily give up driving their car? As a third example, everyone perceives the need for cutting down water demands during a drought, but at the same time it is very tempting for each individual household to sprinkle their garden. These situations have in common that they represent a conflict between what individuals like to do (e.g., to drive a car) and what they ought to do for the welfare of society (e.g., to use sustainable forms of transportation). In the psychological literature these situations are known as social dilemmas (Dawes, 1980). In this article, I will start with a formal definition of a social dilemma, followed by a brief historical account of social dilemma research. Thereafter, I will address what social dilemma research, in my opinion, could contribute to a better understanding and management of the many serious dilemmas modern society is facing. In the above examples the dilemma is posed by a conflict of interests between the individual and the collective. One the one hand, it is attractive to behave in such a way as to increase one's personal outcomes (e.g., to sprinkle the garden). On the other hand, if all or most individuals behave in this same way it will result in a situation that is undesirable for all (e.g., a water shortage). Hence, the dilemma is characterised by the fact that a "selfish" or noncooperative decision bears a positive effect on the individual welfare, whereas the PSYCHOLOGY OF SOCIAL DILEMMAS 3 negative effects are carried by all people involved. It is easy to see how this structure may lead to a collective disaster as there is no incentive for individuals to change their behaviour unilaterally. This type of problem was first identified by Garrett Hardin (1968) in his well-known story about the "Tragedy of the Commons." This parable describes the situation in which a number of herdsmen graze their cattle on a common pasturage. The tragedy starts when each herdsman realizes at some point that it is personally quite attractive to increase the size of his herd …